Category: Iranian

IRANIAN DOMESTIC LIFE

The traditional walled-in houses and picturesque gardens of Iranian homes reveal a deep respect of the old ways. Traditionally, while the men pursued their trades, crafts, or other work, the women spent long hours lovingly preparing fresh seasonings and the intricate ingredients for favorite dishes. Besides meal preparation, their work included the care of children, animals, and often crops.

More recently, despite their traditional chador (a long drab cloth draped to cover the body and most of the head and face), women are increasingly educated and working in professions. The week’s routine of work is broken by the Muslim day of rest: Friday. On this day, picnics are customary and the men of the family take turns accompanying a chattering group of girls, aunts, mothers, and grandmothers for a country outing. As in most other Middle Eastern countries, men prefer to enjoy the company of other male friends in local ghavakhane (a name meaning “coffeehouse” although tea is the favored beverage).

In a land where ancient arts are prized, it is no surprise that the ancient arts of the kitchen are also prized and taught with great pride by mothers to their daughters. In the larger cities, modern conveniences and appliances are increasingly available, but to many Iranians the arts and skills of the kitchen are still best performed in the old way – squatting on rug-covered floors and working on trays, blending seasonings using mortar and pestle, cooking foods with patient care over a small stove.

ABOUT IRAN AND ITS FOOD AND CULTURE

In 1935, the Shah Mohammed Riza Pahlevi changed the name of his country from Persia to Iran. Changing a name is simple, but shifting an ancient nation into the high gear of modern western civilization is a monumental and complex task.

Beginning with the shedding of women’s veils and the doffing of men’s traditional fezzes, the Shahs reforms spread widely and thrust deeply into many aspects of Iranian life.
In 1979, with the forced exile of the Shah, and the return from exile in trance of Iran’s dominant religious leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and his reversal of the Shah’s reforms, clashes between religious factions and between the urban middle class and the disenfranchised poor left a bloody trail of thousands killed or arrested. Despite the death of the Ayatollah in 1989, and a more moderate regime, Iran was politically and economically stagnant. Whether the Shah’s reforms and modernization will gradually seep back to renew and restore ancient pride and vitality in this lustrous land remains to be seen.

Yet in this harsh dry land, despite illiteracy and poverty, foreign dominations and religious disputes, some things remain constant: the innate artistry of Iran’s people and the Iranian philosophy of duality, evident not only in issues of morality but also in balancing sweet and sour, hot and cold, and even light and dark.

Ancient Persian culture abounds with eloquent tales of wit and exquisite paintings. Her cities reflect the genius of sculptor and architect and her peoples participate in crafts of carpet weaving, delicate metalwork, and pottery that have been handed down from generation to generation since prehistoric times. Persian artisans throughout history absorbed the new and subtly blended it with the familiar old ideas, perhaps with some inner vision that their skills would long outlive conqueror and conquered.

Persia, like many other countries, experienced periods of power and times of suffering. It was the Persian, Cyrus the Great, who united the tribes of Medes and Persians and established the Persian Empire about 540 B.C.E. By the time of Darius in the fifth century B.C.E., the mighty Persian Empire dominated the countries from India to Greece and its power was only subdued with the might of Alexander the Great in the early 300s B.C.E. This was the period of great commercial expansion: increased trade, use of coins, building of roads and irrigation tunnels, all of which also included the exchange of ideas. Long ago, Oriental tea and rice had revolutionized Persian cuisine and Persian expansion in turn had spread crafts and arts. With Greek conquests, Hellenistic influences touched everything from the foods on the table (sauces, stuffed vegetables, and methods of food preparation) to architectural design.

A change in religion came with the Arab domination in 640 C.E. Zoroastrianism had been the Persian faith since its founding by the Persian prophet Zoroaster (about 600 B.C.E.). The dualistic faith of Zoroastrianism, teaching that the principles of good and evil struggle for mastery in the universe, was suppressed and replaced by the faith of Islam which appealed to Persians because of its simplicity and emotionalism. Small pockets of Zoroastrian believers are still found in areas of Iran and the Near and Middle East as well as among the Parsees in Bombay, India.

But foreign influences and dominations were not to end with the Arabs. In the next 800 years, Turks and Mongols vied for control of Persia. It was a period that all but wiped out the country’s ancient culture and artistry. In the crumbled small kingdoms of the ancient Persian land, only small pockets of learning kept alive arts, science, and literature, while in the homes parents quietly passed on their skills to their children.

The brief Persian resurrections, under Ishmail I in 1499, who established the Persian Islamic sect of Shiism, and later the rule of Shah Abbas I, who restored order and even promoted trade with the British East India Company were squelched in 1722 by an Afghan army.Later, a tug-of-war between Russia and Great Britain further weakened Persian rulers and increased foreign influence to the point where the despair of the people resulted in the growth of a nationalist movement. This climaxed in 1923 with the election of Riza Kahn Pahlevi as prime minister. The shift to independence, renewal of ancient pride, and vitality had begun.

FOODS IN IRAN

DAIRY PRODUCTS

Ten percent of Iran’s population consists of nomadic tribes who herd coats and sheep. Fresh milk is not practical in a hot climate; goats and sheep can forage for food in dry scraggy areas where cattle could not survive; hence the title of “poor man’s cow” bestowed on the goat, the producer of milk that makes excellent cheeses and that is also fermented to produce rich buttery yogurt. Most homemakers prepare their own yogurt simply by adding a little yogurt to fresh milk and allowing it to ferment. Spread on a cloth and allowed to dry in the sun, the yogurt culture can be transported as a dried powder then reconstituted. Yogurt is used as it is or diluted with water and lightly salted to form a refreshing beverage. Because yogurt is mildly acidic, it is also used as a marinade to tenderize meats, and as an ingredient in many dishes.

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

While the climate of the Middle East is conducive to the growing of fruits, the orchards and vineyards of Iran produce fruits of legendary flavor and size. These are not only enjoyed fresh and ripe as desserts but are also imaginatively combined with meats and form unusual accompaniments to the main dishes. When fresh fruits are not available, a large variety of excellent dried fruits such as dates and figs, dried apricots and peaches are used instead. The list of fruits includes: fresh dates and fresh figs, many citrus fruits, apricots, peaches, sweet and sour cherries, apples, plums, pears, pomegranates, and many varieties of grapes and melons.

While the eggplant is “the potato of Iran,” Iranians are fond of fresh green salads dressed with olive oil, lemon juice, salt and pepper, and a little garlic. Vegetables such as pumpkin, spinach, string beans, varieties of squashes, and carrots are commonly used in rice and meat dishes.

Tomatoes, cucumbers, and green onions often accompany a meal. A small sweet variety of cucumber is popularly served as a fruit. The term dolmeh is used to describe any vegetable or fruit stuffed with a rice or rice-and-meat mixture: grape leaves, cabbage leaves, spinach, eggplant, peppers, tomatoes, even apples, and quince (beh).

To underline both the skill and imagination of Iranian cookery, a few examples of the main ingredients in national specialties would include: duck, pomegranates, and walnuts; lamb, prunes, and cinnamon; spinach, orange, and garlic; and chicken and sliced peaches sautéed in onions and butter, seasoned with cinnamon and lemon juice.

The above are only a few examples of the combinations of meats and vegetables, or meats and fruits plus unusual seasonings that may go into chelo koresh, the favorite Iranian dish that is served at least once daily This dish of crusty baked rice is topped by one of the sauces listed, or one of dozens more, limited only by price and availability of ingredients.

MEATS AND ALTERNATES

Lamb is the favored meat. Young, sweet, and tender, lamb is treasured for its taste and texture and is usually combined with rice to form chelo koresh, tah chin (layered rice, yogurt, and lamb) or the many dolmeh dishes. Next to lamb in importance is kid (young goat), and very occasionally beef and chicken. Many varieties of local fish are eaten, but almost no seafood.

An important source of protein is found in the large quantities of beans, legumes, and nuts Iranians consume almost daily. Chickpeas, dried lava beans, white and red beans, dried yellow and green split peas and lentils are used not only in stews with vegetables and bits of meat but also mixed with rice and even toasted and salted to be enjoyed as appetizers. Nuts in rich profusion, especially pistachios, walnuts, and almonds, are used widely as ingredients or garnishes as well as appetizers or to nibble lightly toasted and salted like the beans.

Iran’s beluga caviar, lightly salted sturgeon roe, deserves special mention for it is world famous. Sturgeon and swordfish are served skewered as a specialty dish of the Caspian Sea region, but these fish are also good smoked.

BREADS AND GRAINS

Unpolished long-grain rice or patna is an Iranian staple. Many say that the preparation of rice in Iran is unequaled elsewhere in the world. The exact method of cookery – whether or not to presoak, and how long to cook – depends on the age of the rice. Who else but Iranians concern themselves with the age of rice? The scores of unusual food combinations are actually based on two simple rice dishes: chelo, in which the brown crustiness of the rice is encouraged with the addition of melted butter and egg yolks, then the rice is topped with sauces; or polo, similar to pilaf in which the many ingredients are mixed and cooked together with the rice. Khoresh is the name given to the many sauces that can top a chelo and these are usually only limited by season, not by imagination.

Aside from main dishes, rice may also be heavily sweetened with sugar, syrup, or honey and flecked with almonds and pistachios to prepare a type of shekar polo, a very sweet polo used for special occasions. Finally, rice will likely be the principal ingredient in many stuffed fruit or vegetable dishes called dolmeh.

Second only to rice is the production and use of wheat. There are more than forty types of wheat breads, from very dark to very light, from crisp to limp, and at least one type of flat bread will be a part of every meal. Nane lavash is an example of the thin crisp bread with good keeping qualities, while nane sangak is a fresh yeast bread, baked on hot stones and eaten while still warm. Nane barbari is a flat thick bread sprinkled with cornmeal and sesame seeds and enjoyed warm from the oven. Some barley is produced but it is used mainly as food for animals and only occasionally for human food when wheat crops are poor.

FATS

Olive oils, clarified butter, and fat from the “fat-tailed sheep” are used in cooking and salads. Butter is clarified mainly to remove the milk solids and enhance its keeping qualities.

SWEETS AND SNACKS

Fresh fruits are the usual dessert, but the insatiable Iranian sweet tooth finds some satisfaction in the many fruit khoreshes used in chelo, the many cups of hot sweet tea (herbal and regular), candied and dried fruits, and the special occasions when shekar polo and pastries like baklava are prepared in profusion.

SEASONINGS

One of the distinctions of the Iranian cuisine is the subtlety of the seasonings. The traditional Iranian politeness even extends to limiting garlic in cookery so as not to offend others. Onions and garlic are used only with discretion, but cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, saffron, paprika, fenugreek, marjoram, savory, nutmeg, turmeric, and dill are used with artistry: never overpowering, always gently enhancing the main ingredients.

To balance the natural sweetness of fresh and dried fruits used so often in cookery, the Iranian cook adds judicious amounts of tartness by using one of the following: verjuice, the sour juice of un-ripened grapes; lemon or lime juice; strips of dried limes; dried tangerine peel or tamarind. Powdered sumac, with its chili-powder appearance and sour taste, is a seasoning often used for broiled meats. Pomegranate juice and seeds are often used both for color and tartness. Sweetness and tartness: a skillful balance in Iranian cuisine.

BEVERAGES

The national beverage of Iran is sweet clear tea, often sipped through a sugar cube. Sweet tea starts the day, breaks the work hours, may accompany social or business engagements and sometimes meals. Tea called chai is always appropriate. But so are the special herbal teas called tisanes, used for a variety of medical “cures,” steeped from flowers such as roses, violets, jasmine, chamomile, and spices such as ginger, saffron, and anise: all fragrant, flavorful, and aromatic.

Next in importance is coffee – more important in some areas than in others. Special rituals surround the preparation and serving of tiny cups of coffee (discussed below) but it is taken with little or no sugar.

Yogurt, diluted with water or sparkling mineral water and lightly salted, is served as a refreshing ink – often with meals – and is called dugh or abdug. Although Muslims do not drink wine, they sometimes allow themselves beer (often taken with the addition of salt), cognac, or Aarak, a clear potent liquor redolent of anise. Large quantities of carbonated beverages and soft drinks are also enjoyed.

Not to be overlooked are the many refreshing non-alcoholic drinks prepared from fresh fruits called afshoreh and from fruit syrups called sharbat. Unique syrups include those made from quince, rose petals, rhubarb, lemon, and even from vinegar scented with fresh mint. Fresh fruit drinks can be made From varieties and combinations of orange, berries, cherries, and melons.

IRANIAN SPECIAL OCCASIONS

The largest religious group in the ancient land of Iran is Muslim, with much smaller groups of Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians.

Friday is the Muslim day of rest and Iranian women relax by enjoying a form of a country picnic, chaperoned by the men of the family: The traditional dish is kuku or kukune, which is like a large omelet or pancake cooked on top of the stove and prepared from cooked and lightly browned vegetables bound with beaten eggs. It can be enjoyed hot or cold accompanied by breads, cheese, and fruits.

The Iranian New Year (Norouz) is joyously celebrated on March 21, the spring solstice. Like so much in Iranian life, the end of the year is seen as symbolic of death and darkness, while the beginning of the new year is seen as rebirth and light.

Several weeks before, houses are cleaned, new clothes are sewn, and sweet baked goods are prepared. A special ceremonial sofreh (embroidered white cloth for the new year) is set up ready for the feasting. The eve of the last Wednesday before the new year is called Red Wednesday, a night for bonfires, costumes, even the wearing of painted faces and shrouds, to symbolically chase away bad spirits.

In addition, to help chase away the spirits of darkness, a special sofreh is placed on the carpets or table to be laid out with seven symbols of good angels, to symbolize “life, rebirth, health, happiness, prosperity, joy and beauty” Close to the sofreh, a mirror is placed to reflect the beautiful symbols, and candles to represent the number of children in the home are lit. With the singing of songs and readings from the Koran, the family ushers in the new year.

Iranian families prepare many special sweet dishes for the new year and always among them are the shekar polo, a sweet and syrupy rice dish flecked with almonds and pistachios, and the traditional baklava. Shoots of wheat to symbolize the very roots of life adorn the festive table together with a mirror on which eggs are arranged. The first jiggle of the eggs symbolizes the very moment when the legendary bull tosses the whole earth from one horn to the other. There follows a happy time of family visits and gift-giving and many sweets and treats to nibble and munch for thirteen days of festivities when all schools and businesses enjoy a holiday too. Traditional outdoor picnics end the days of New Years celebrations.

IRANIAN MEALS AND CUSTOMS

Consideration of others and refinement of manners are as much a part of the Iranian character as appreciation of and dedication to artistry. Shoes are traditionally removed before entering a room and the main meal of the day is always preceded by ceremonious hand-washing and the serving of tea.

The traditional Iranian dinner is set out in serving dishes set on a large white cloth spread over many beautiful carpets. The diners sit around the cloth on soft cushions. It is customary for the diners to eat all foods with the fingers of their right hand. Special short-handled spoons are used for soups and soft desserts, and sometimes visitors are given forks. However, all food is prepared and served in such a way that knives are never needed or used at the table. A simple meal would traditionally observe all of these customs, a more elaborate meal or banquet would differ only in the number and variety of dishes presented.

Where coffee still takes precedence over tea, there is a special ritual to its preparation and serving, and special implements are used. For the purist, the coffee beans are roasted and crushed immediately before brewing. Mihma is the special spoon for roasting the beans, qashuga is the name of the long rod to stir the roasting beans, while hawan is the special brass mortar used to crush the hot, freshly roasted coffee beans. In fact, in some homes, the early morning pounding of the coffee beans and the baking of crisp breads for breakfast is a pleasant awakening for the family.

The rounded Iranian coffeepots, with their long spouts and narrow necks, seem always ready with a fresh brew, whether the woman of the house is being hospitable or the merchant is doing business. In fact, to refuse the offer of coffee is considered an insult. Traditionally, coffee is offered three times after the guests’ arrival and always it must be drunk. This is not a difficult matter as the handle-less cups are very tiny and when one excludes the sediment, there is really not too much to drink. As with food, the cup of coffee is always received and drunk with the right hand. The use of the left hand is considered impolite, but the noisy sipping of the beverage, or rather the thick brew, is indicative of pleasure.

Three meals a day are usual and they begin with a light and early breakfast of sweetened tea or coffee and breads. Sometimes the breads are served with local cheeses. Lunch and dinner are usually similar meals based on hearty portions of rice either made as chelo or as a polo and frequently accompanied with fresh seasonal vegetables, bread and cheese. Iran has a small but fine repertoire of soups but these are not as popular as dishes prepared with rice as a base. In fact, ash, the word for soup, is really part of the Persian word ash-paz or “cook.” This means “the maker of the soup.” For most meals, fresh ripe fruits are the usual dessert.

Throughout the day nibbles of crunchy toasted nuts of all kinds, crisp dried seeds, and roasted beans, all lightly salted, are enjoyed everywhere. Juicy snacks of fresh fruits and the frequent social sipping of tea or coffee allow little opportunity for real hunger. Ajeel is a traditional mix of nuts and seeds that have been simmered in lime juice then salted and toasted. The familiar arrangement of selected fresh fruits that graces tables and is sold by vendors is called miveh.

IRANIAN FOODS THAT ARE COMMONLY USED

The classic Middle Eastern staples of lamb, wheat bread, eggplant, and yogurt are also the staples of Iran. But Iranian cuisine sets itself apart by the cultivation and use of rice for almost every meal. “A loaf of bread, a jug of wine” may have satisfied Omar Khayyam, but the fact that the Iranians themselves pay highest tribute to their poet Firdausi, who wrote the Shah-nama – an epic poem to the ruler said to have invented cooking – clearly marks their valued appreciation of gastronomy.

Thus the Iranian diet, along with a base of expertly cooked long-grain white rice, includes seasonal fruits and vegetables, meats and fish, all subtly touched with fragrant spices and herbs and accompanied with liberal servings of some form of yogurt as well as flat wheaten bread. Very little seafood is used and pork is forbidden since Iran is a Muslim land. It should be emphasized that Iranian foods are mildly seasoned, often using saffron or turmeric and the aromatic cinnamon, clove, and cardamom, while orange flower water and rosewater perfume many confections. Sweet hot tea in tiny cups is the anytime beverage, while succulent sweetness keynotes not only the tea but also snacks and treats and even some of the fruit sauces that are part of meat dishes.

As in most Middle Eastern countries, there is great disparity between the diet of the wealthy classes and that of low-income groups both in rural and urban areas. The fine intricacies of the Iranian cuisine and the selection of many dishes for a meal are the privilege of the upper classes alone. Zoroastrian duality is still very much a part of food selection into “hot” and “cold” and eaten in accordance often with body temperaments, such as illness, fatigue, stress, and so on.

For others, cereals supplemented with dairy products, and small amounts of fruits and vegetables in season washed down with huge quantities of sweet tea, form the basic diet. Meats are used rarely. In the wheat-producing areas, rice, the staple of most Iranians, is considered a luxury for the poor, while in the rice-producing areas, the poor enjoy wheat bread as if it were cake.

IRANIAN FOOD GLOSSARY AND FOOD TERMS

Aarak: a strong colorless liquor (possibly Chinese in origin) made from fermented rice and molasses, taken as an aperitif and sometimes diluted with water. Because it is not made from grape fermentation, for some Muslims it somehow circumvents the prohibition against alcohol, more specifically wine. In Iraq, Aarak may be made from dates and flavored with mastik; Iran’s Aarak may be flavored with the addition of anise or fennel.

Abdug or Dugh: a refreshing tangy drink of yogurt diluted with plain or mineral water and lightly salted. Often served with meals or as a refreshment by itself.

Abgusht: a thick soup of chickpeas and onions, flavored with lamb or mutton. Accompanied with bread and pounded to a smooth puree, this dish is the staple of workmen.

Abgusht Miveh: a thick soup made with lamb, beets, red beans, and lentils. In the last hour of cooking, a cup of assorted dried fruits is added.

Adviel: spice mixture of fragrant cinnamon, angelica, nutmeg, crushed dried rose petals, and cumin.

Ajeel: a mixture of nuts and seeds simmered in water and lime juice then salted and toasted and eaten as an appetizer or snack.

Ash or Aash: general name given to thick soups prepared from several beans and lentils plus vegetables and sometimes meat. Lemon or lime juice is added at the end and the thick soup is served topped with yogurt as a meal. Frequently, many thick Iranian soup-stews are served as a strained clear broth to be followed by the soup ingredients neatly chopped or pounded into a smooth mound, this second course to be eaten with bread and crisp fresh vegetables.

Bademjan: eggplant.

Basmati or Patna: unpolished long-grain white rice, the basis of traditional Iranian dishes.

Borani: salad of freshly steamed and drained spinach dressed with a sauce of yogurt, lemon juice, garlic, and crushed walnuts. Toasted sesame seeds and sprigs of fresh mint are the final garnish.

Chai: tea. In Iran, tea is taken clear, strong, and sweet, usually in small cups.

Chelo or Chilau or Chello: classic Iranian dish of rice (long-grain and unpolished) cooked lightly for eight to ten minutes, then allowed to fluff over low heat. The addition of melted butter and sometimes egg yolks to the last step results in a crispy-brown crust on the bottom of the pot. Chelo is served in a mound, topped with the broken crisp crusts and poured over a Khoresh (sauce) is poured over to make a main dish. Sometimes a raw egg yolk in its shell and a sprinkling of Sumac is added by the diner.

D’Abdugh: popular summer dish of diluted Mast (yogurt) mixed with chopped cucumbers and seasoned with powdered rose petals and dried raisins. Served as a chilled soup.

Fesenjan: a whole duck or cut-up duck pieces are lightly browned in butter then set aside while the sauce is made of crushed walnuts, pomegranate juice, or syrup all lightly flavored with onions and cardamom. Served over Chelo, this may be considered a Khoresh. Chopped walnuts and sections of fresh tangerines are the garnish.

Firni: powdered rice starch used for thickening soups and desserts.

Fustuck: pine nuts.

Geisi Polo: a pilaf of cooked lamb, rice, raisins, and dried apricots.

Gushe Barreh: similar to Italian ravioli. Small noodle dough envelopes filled with finely chopped meat and vegetable mixtures, usually served in soups.

Halva: popular sweet made throughout the Middle East, but varying from place to place. Iranian Halva is a pasty mixture of browned butter and flour blended with syrup and takes its color and taste from saffron. It is served as a dessert or eaten on bread.

Harisa: a thick puree resembling a porridge and made of burgul (coarse wheat), mutton, and chick-peas with butter and cinnamon, served hot.

Joojeh: a dish of stuffed roasted chicken. The mildly flavored stuffing is made of cooked rice or burgul (coarse wheat), cooked chickpeas, slivered almonds, and salt and pepper.

Kebab: marinated meat, broiled. Marinade is most often lemon juice with finely grated onion.

Kabuli Polo: a mixture of cooked rice and lamb scented with saffron, allspice, and cardamom, strewn with cooked slivers of almonds, carrots, and white raisins.

Keysava: a rich conserve of dried apricots and nuts. Served as a dessert garnished with yogurt or whipped cream.

Khoresh or Koresh: general name given to any one of dozens of exotic combinations of seasoned fruits, meats, nuts, vegetables. Prepared as a thick sauce served over Chelo. Ingredients depend on season.

Kufta: of the whole “meatball family” this one is probably the largest. Finely ground meat (lamb or mutton) is blended with ground chickpeas, rice, and seasonings and shaped to form a large ball. Chopped prunes and hard-cooked eggs are tucked into the center and the Kufta is gently simmered in broth. Broth may be served as a soup, while the Kufta is sliced and served separately.

Kuku, Kukune, or Coucou: classic Iranian picnic dish, delicious whether hot or cold. It is actually a large omelet full of chopped vegetables; potatoes, leeks, onions are the usual ingredients (plus eggs of course).

Mahi Dudi: smoked fish.

Mast: yogurt.

Mastva Khair: a salad of chopped cucumbers with white raisins, mint, onion, salt and pepper and dressed with yogurt.

Miveh: a mix of fruits, usually fresh, sometimes dried.

Nane Lavash: thin crisp wheat bread with good keeping qualities.

Nane Sangak or Sangak: fresh yeast bread, baked on hot stones and eaten while still warm.

Paludeh: any crushed or coarsely grated fresh fruit, sprinkled with lemon juice and heaped in a serving dish. Garnished with mint or cinnamon, it makes a quick and refreshing dessert.

Panir: a firm white goat’s cheese similar to the Greek Feta.

Polo: general name for a layered mixture of fruits, vegetables, meats, and rice. Similar to Pilaf.

Rogan: clarified butter.

Sabzi Panir: appetizer platter of dark bread, slices of goat’s cheese, walnut halves, and sprigs of coriander served separately and to be assembled according to taste by the diner. May be accompanied with Aarak.

Seranjabin: a sweet and sour syrup prepared from sugar, water, vinegar, and mint. Used as a basis for cool summer drinks (as are other fruit syrups) combined with water and sparkling mineral water. Also may be used for dipping Romaine lettuce as a light dessert.

Shekar Polo or Polou: classic Iranian sweet rice dish prepared as the highlight of all special occasions. Cooked rice is sweetened with heavy syrup and flavored with saffron. Finely chopped almonds and pistachios complete the dish.

Shirini: cubed pumpkin is cooked in a heavy syrup and served with walnuts, cinnamon, and topped with clotted cream. Traditional Kurdish dessert. (Kurds are Muslims scattered over Iran, Iraq, and southeast Turkey, mainly farmers or herders.)

Shish Kebab: Iranian dish well known in the western world. Cubes of meat marinated in lemon juice. onion, and salt. The meat, usually lamb, is arranged on skewers and broiled.

Sofren: elegantly embroidered cloth spread over rich floor carpets upon which is placed the platters of foods for meals and special occasions. Often a mirror is placed to reflect the beauty of the foods.

Tah Chin: classic Iranian dish of lamb marinated in yogurt both for flavor and tenderizing, then layered and cooked with rice (Chelo).